Dr. Armine Tigranyan, Ph.D. in History and cultural heritage expert, explores Azerbaijan's systematic destruction and appropriation of Artsakh's spiritual heritage in this comprehensive analysis of cultural genocide targeting over 4,000 Armenian Christian monuments.
Text: Dr. Armine Tigranyan, Ph.D. in History and cultural heritage expert
Artsakh has a rich cultural heritage, much of which has reached us from the depths of centuries. More than 4,000 officially registered monuments are located within the territory of the Republic of Artsakh, the vast majority of which represent Armenian Christian heritage dating from the 4th to the 19th centuries. Since the 4th century, Armenians have created thousands of Christian structures, left about three thousand Armenian inscriptions, and preserved hundreds of manuscripts—irrefutable evidence of the Armenian identity of these lands. The enduring presence of Armenian material and intangible culture in the region constitutes indisputable evidence of the territory’s historical and legal belonging.
Artsakh
Since its establishment in 1918, the Republic of Azerbaijan has pursued a state-sponsored policy of anti-Armenianism. The right of the Armenians of Artsakh to preserve their identity has been consistently violated, both during the Soviet period and under the current independent Azerbaijani state. Manifestations of ethnic cleansing and cultural genocide, overt intolerance toward Armenian cultural heritage, the systematic erasure of Armenian historical traces, and the denial of indigenous Armenian presence have been and remain integral components of Azerbaijan’s political agenda.
Driven by the desire to eliminate the evidence of Armenian presence in the region, from the very first day of the 44-day war in 2020, Azerbaijan adopted a strategy of comprehensive destruction of Armenian historical heritage from the very first day of the 44-day war in 2020. Throughout the conflict, Armenian cultural heritage sites in Artsakh were subjected to indiscriminate shelling and bombardment using heavy military equipment. Following the transfer of Armenian historical territories under Azerbaijani control, significant portions of the Republic of Artsakh came under Azerbaijani control, where an extensive campaign of destruction targeted the region’s Christian heritage—churches, chapels, khachkars (cross-stones), and Armenian-inscribed monuments—as well as historic cemeteries and memorials dedicated to the Armenian Genocide, World War II, the Artsakh liberation struggle, and more recent commemorative structures erected over the past three decades. Intangible heritage has likewise not been spared.
Artsakh
Following the military operation of September 19, 2023, which completed Azerbaijan’s programmatic policy of ethnically cleansing Artsakh of its Armenian population, the assaults on Armenian cultural heritage have not only continued but have escalated into deliberate acts of forced cultural assimilation. These attacks persist to this day, posing an urgent threat to the survival of Armenian heritage in the region.
Through the implementation of this deliberate, state-driven policy, the Armenians of Artsakh have been severed from their social and cultural values, stripped of the opportunity to engage with and pass down to future generations their knowledge connected to the natural landscapes, monuments, communities, and cultural heritage of their historical homeland, Artsakh. The forced displacement from over 4,000 historical monuments in Artsakh, the direct threats to their existence, the numerous values of heritage already destroyed or desecrated, and the inability to live authentically according to their identity have created insurmountable challenges in preserving the rituals, beliefs, traditions, and festivals associated with essential sites, churches, sanctuaries, and pilgrimage destinations. Cultural heritage plays a critical role in cultural self-expression, education, and the transmission of knowledge between generations. Therefore, its destruction hinders people’s access to their cultural heritage and undermines their future ability to engage in cultural practices, rituals, and traditions.
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The obliteration of spiritual heritage in Artsakh occurs in two main phases: first, through its physical destruction, and second, through its appropriation and distortion.
Destruction of Spiritual-Cultural Heritage – This includes the demolition of churches, khachkars, the erasure and destruction of inscriptions․
Appropriation of Spiritual Cultural Heritage – This refers to the systematic Albanization of Armenian Christian churches, the erasure of their Armenian identity, and the distortion of historical narratives related to Artsakh’s cultural heritage.
Destruction of Churches in Artsakh
The physical destruction of spiritual heritage is a deliberate policy employed by Azerbaijan to completely or partially eliminate the Armenian heritage of Artsakh. By destroying churches in Artsakh, Azerbaijan severs the spiritual bond of Artsakh Armenians with these sacred sites, depriving them of vital spaces for rituals and prayers, thereby hindering their future ability to conduct religious practices.
Clear examples of such heritage destruction date back to 2020, with the complete demolition of the Zoravor Surb Astvatsatsin church in the town of Mekhakavan (Jabrayil), the Saint Sarkis Church in the village of Mokhrenis, the destruction of Green Chapel, Saint John the Baptist Church (Surb Hovhannes Mkrtich) in Shushi. Also, the destruction of the Surb Hambardzum church in Berdzor and the demolition of Surb Minas Church in Mariamadzor village.
Additionally, the targeted shelling and dome destruction of the Holy Savior Ghazanchetsots Cathedral in Shushi, along with the continued damage to it, such as the erasure of inscriptions, destruction of Christ’s bas-relief, and obliteration of cross symbols under the guise of restoration, serve as stark evidence of this policy. Extensive “restoration” construction activities are being carried out inside the Holy Savior Ghazanchetsots Cathedral in Shushi. The dome has been dismantled, crosses have been removed from the gates leading to the courtyard of Ghazanchetsots, and the angel sculptures have been taken down from the gate’s stone edges
In 2023, Azerbaijan turned the historical layers of the Holy Mother of God Church (Meghretsots, built in 1838 in Shushi) into a pile of debris, removed the cross from the 7th-century Vankasar Church, toppled the cross of the Stepanakert Mountain, and, through construction interventions, erased the unique inscriptions and cross engravings from the medieval churches of Saint Sarkis and Saint Gregory in Tsar village, among others.
Gandzasar Monastry. Artsakh
Destruction of Armenian cross-stones in Artsakh
Among the primary targets of Azerbaijan's policy of Armenophobia, alongside churches, are cross-stones (khachkars), which have faced widespread destruction. The crossstone (khachkar), one of the most characteristic and unique symbols of Armenian identity, is both a product and an indicator of its development. With their marvelous carvings, the symbolism of the cross representing salvation, and the enduring permanence inspired by the stone, crossstones have been and remain among the most revered and, due to their abundance and outdoor placement, the most accessible sanctities of the Armenian people. Having traversed over a millennium of historical development, they also represent a contemporary cultural manifestation, both through their historical presence and the installation of hundreds in Artsakh over the last 30 years.
Azerbaijan's systematic campaign in this regard is particularly underscored by the destruction of several significant crossstones. Among these are the crossstones of Arakel village in the Hadrut region, destroyed in 2020, those of the memorial complex dedicated to the Hadrut city's freedom fighters, the unique XIV-century crossstone of the Lachin historical cemetery, and several crossstones dating from the XV–XVI centuries. Additionally, in 2022, the chapel of the “Union of Karabakh War Veterans” and the surrounding crossstones in Mataghis were destroyed, along with the unique XII-XIII century crossstones of the Armenian-Greek old cemetery in Shushi. The cross-stones dedicated to the Artsakh Liberation War in Ukhtadzor, Hadrut region, and Vorotan city have also been demolished. The crossstone placed in the area of the Kavakavanq church in 1995 has disappeared. On January 7, 2024, it was revealed that the memorial cross-stone erected in October 2021 in memory of the heroes of the Artsakh Liberation War on Daniel Varujan Street in Martakert had been destroyed, along with two cross-stones adjacent to the Aghanus village in Kashatagh.
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Angles of Holy Saviour Ghazanchetsots Church of Shushi before the 44-day war․ Image by Vladimir Gevorgyan
The destruction of crossstones is a multifaceted violation of the cultural rights of the Armenians of Artsakh. As symbols of Christianity, they also embody deeply rooted historical and cultural values significant to Armenian identity. Moreover, crossstones often serve as communal gathering places and sites for spiritual and cultural self-expression.
It should be noted that Azerbaijan's policy of systematic destruction of crossstones (khachkars) has deep roots, which were executed in Nakhichevan. From 1998 to 2006, under the guise of “peaceful conditions”, the Azerbaijani army demolished and leveled thousands of carved crossstones and tombstones with heavy construction equipment, converting the area, once home to unique historical and cultural cemetery artifacts, into a shooting range.
Additionally, it is noteworthy that “The Art of Armenian Cross-stones: Symbolism and Craftsmanship of Khachkars” has been included in UNESCO’s “Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity” since 2010, underscoring their status as a cultural asset of universal value. Consequently, the destruction of these values is a severe blow to the shared heritage of humanity, universal values, and is also a grave crime against all of humanity. In particular, the inclusion in UNESCO's Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage, and thus the recognition of the khachkar culture as a unique value of global significance, provides additional enhanced protection for cross stones under international laws for the protection of cultural properties during armed conflicts and in occupied territories.
The deliberate destruction of spiritual heritage is prohibited during peacetime as well as wartime under the Hague and Geneva Conventions, as well as by UNESCO conventions that hold a mandate for the protection of cultural heritage.
In this regard, it is important to cite the words of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda: “Attacks on religious and historical monuments destroy the roots of a people and irreversibly affect their social practices and structure.” Despite global efforts to preserve heritage, the large-scale losses of cultural values resulting from continuous wars impoverish the planet of unique and irreplaceable assets. Crimes against cultural heritage or those affecting it also impact the idea of humanism. Cultural heritage is a unique and significant testimony to the culture and identity of peoples, and the destruction of heritage, whether tangible or intangible, is a significant loss to the affected communities and the international community. Moreover, any attack on spiritual structures, religious communities, and their individuals is also an attack on religious freedom in general, and thus an attack on all religious communities. The freedom of religion or belief also implies the protection of places of worship and, first and foremost, the guarantee of the unimpeded realization of the right to culture. Therefore, we can confidently state that the protection of spiritual sites, monuments, and the assurance of free access to them are vital for ensuring the exercise of religious freedom and, indeed, for democracy.
The Appropriation of Artsakh’s Cultural Heritage
Azerbaijan’s falsification and appropriation of historical facts about Armenian Christian heritage, along with the alienation of identity and alteration of function, constitute violations of the cultural rights of the Armenians of Artsakh. Such actions sever the genuine connection to one’s history, grounded in accurate knowledge, and impede the ability to pass it on to future generations, thereby disrupting the link to identity. Through this policy, Azerbaijan distorts the true history and authenticity of heritage. This process of appropriating Armenian cultural symbols and history includes the "Albanization" of Armenian churches, the denial of Armenian identity, the disruption of ritual practices, and more.
Illegal “reconstruction” of Holy Saviour Ghazanchetsots Church of Shushi Holy Saviour Ghazanchetsots Church of Shushi after the point-blank strike by the armed forces of Azerbaijan on 8 October 2020
The “Albanization” of Armenian churches, a theory established and solidified within Azerbaijani state policy since the mid-20th century, aims to proclaim the long-extinct Christian Albanians as the ancestors of Azerbaijanis and to frame Armenian churches as the heritage of these supposed forebears. The theory of Albanization in Azerbaijan has deep-rooted origins dating back to the 1950s when Azerbaijani academician and father of Azerbaijani historiography, Ziya Bunyatov, sought to assert that the ancient churches of Nagorno-Karabakh were built not by Armenians, but by the now-extinct Caucasian Albanians. He claimed that their settlements encompassed the regions of Nakhichevan and Nagorno-Karabakh. This falsification seeks not only to undermine the historical roots of the Armenian people but also to limit their historical right to live and create in the region.
This theory, repeatedly condemned by internationally recognized scholars and various organizations (European Parliament, Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention, Europa Nostra, Monument Watch of Artsakh), is exemplified by Azerbaijan’s enlistment of the approximately 2,000–3,000 Christian Udi people within its borders in efforts to deny the Armenian identity of spiritual structures. For example, according to Adam Smith, Professor of Anthropology at Cornell University, Armenian churches, particularly Dadivank, could not have been established by the kingdom known as Caucasian Albania, which had declined around the 8th century. In another article of Ch. Maranci, “Armenians displaced from Nagorno-Karabakh fear their medieval churches will be destroyed”, the policy pursued by Azerbaijan about falsifying the past is viewed as a “subtle” tactic for eradicating heritage.
Azerbaijan’s approach was based on the fact that the Udis, as the only Christian descendants of the Caucasian Albanians, were used as a “political tool” to claim a right to the Christian heritage of Artsakh as purported carriers of Albanian culture. By portraying this narrative, Azerbaijan positions itself as having a right to this legacy. Meanwhile, the destruction of Armenian heritage is framed as a supposed restitution for the “lost cultural rights” of the Albanian-Udi community.
Notable examples include the “Albanization” of the historic Armenian Dadivank Monastery, disregarding around 200 Armenian inscriptions, and the appropriation of the Saint Khach Church in Hadrut and the XII century Saint Astvatsatsin Church in Tsakuri as non-Armenian, with organized visits by members of the Udi community who continually desecrate the traditional Christian rituals of the Armenian Church. Through the rhetoric of the President of Azerbaijan, efforts are being made to deny the Armenian identity of the Tsakuri village church in the Hadrut region, instead declaring it as Albanian. The khachkars are claimed to have been affixed or installed during the period of occupation, while the inscriptions are asserted to be later additions.
Armenian Monastery of Dadivank, Artsakh
Azerbaijan has also declared the Saint Yeghishe Church in Mataghis and the Saint Hovhannes Church in Togh as “Albanian”. Representatives of the Albanian-Udi community began visiting Armenian churches after the 2020 war and desecrated them through various rituals. The issue is that the only justification for the Albanization of Armenian Apostolic churches, presented by Azerbaijanis, is their visits to these religious sites. In other words, through their visits and various ceremonies in the Armenian churches, they claim these churches as their own while spreading misinformation with fabricated narratives. During one of these visits, representatives of the so-called “Albanian-Udi” community desecrated and damaged the unique shurf (underground burial niche) of the Armenian church Tsitsernavank in the Kashatagh region of Artsakh, performing anti-Armenian rituals. The threat of “Albanization” also extends to the Armenian church of Kavakavank, which bears a unique 1742 inscription.
Recently, the wheel of “Albanization” has also turned towards the Gandzasar Monastery complex, with its engraved khachkars, portals, and the entire church area rich in inscriptions being falsely labeled as “Albanian”. Furthermore, the Amaras Monastery, dated to the 4th-5th centuries, has also been declared “Albanian”.
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Amaras Monastry. Artsakh
Azerbaijan’s policy of reattributing Armenian Christian cultural heritage to other ethnic groups has recently taken on international dimensions. On April 10, 2025, Azerbaijan organized an international conference at the Pontifical Gregorian University in the Vatican under the title “Christianity in Azerbaijan: History and Modernity”, with the clear aim of reassigning medieval Armenian churches—centuries-old monuments of Armenian heritage—to the present-day Udi-Albanian community living in Azerbaijan. This attempt to appropriate and reframe history was one more effort to “legitimize” Azerbaijan’s various historical distortions on an international platform.
The most active promoter of this conference was Revan Hasanov, head of the Baku International Multiculturalism Center. This illustrates how Azerbaijan is attempting to present its policy of appropriating Christian heritage in the context of multiculturalism, to portray itself as a tolerant country where various ethnic and religious communities can coexist, and where no discrimination is purportedly practiced.
During the event, Azerbaijan’s propaganda apparatus once again attempted to deny the Armenian origin of Armenia’s and Artsakh’s historical and cultural heritage, distorting historical facts with the deliberate aim of appropriating them.
Saint Harutyun Church. Artsakh
The issue lies in the existence of Armenian churches in Artsakh that are explicitly and uniquely Armenian. For example, Dadivank alone contains over 200 Armenian inscriptions; the same is true for Gandzasar and Amaras, which are home to thousands of khachkars and are deeply imbued with Armenian cultural elements. All of this creates a significant obstacle to Azerbaijan’s territorial ambitions and efforts to legitimize control over the territory of Artsakh. As such, it is clear that Azerbaijan has developed a policy to appropriate Christian heritage, and the most convenient path—alongside the policy of destruction—is the alienation of these churches from their Armenian identity, the distortion of historical facts, and their re-presentation as belonging to non-Armenian traditions.
Similar events have also taken place in Poland. In May 2024, an exhibition entitled “Uncovering the Christian Diversity of Azerbaijan” was organized, with its central theme being the presentation of Armenian historical churches—such as Dadivank, the 5th-century Amaras Monastery, Gandzasar with its distinctive carvings, khachkars, and inscriptions, Tsitsernavank, and others—as Caucasian Albanian heritage. The exhibition also displayed religious rituals of the so-called “Udi-Albanian” minority being performed within these Armenian churches.
This program, devoted to Azerbaijan’s false multiculturalism, is being carried out at the cost of appropriating, denying, and erasing the culture of Artsakh—a culture that constitutes a unique and irreplaceable part of the world’s cultural diversity.
Saint Khach Monastery of Vank village of Hadrut region. Artsakh
By desecrating spiritual and cultural values, Azerbaijan undermines the deep spiritual connection that Armenians of Artsakh maintain with these heritage sites, depriving them of important spaces for religious practices, rituals, and prayers. Such actions obstruct their ability to engage in ceremonial activities in the future. These violations sever the opportunity to engage with one's history through authentic knowledge and hinder the transmission of cultural memory to future generations, ultimately disrupting the link with identity. Through this policy, Azerbaijan distorts the true history and authenticity of the heritage in question. These actions contribute to the escalation of tensions and undermine the agenda of peace. Attacks on cultural heritage need not always be carried out with weapons—they can also be implemented through mechanisms such as falsifying history, disseminating disinformation, and violating fundamental human rights.
Today, approximately 121,600 Artsakh Armenians, due to Azerbaijan's discriminatory treatment, are deprived of the right to participate in Artsakh's cultural life, visit pilgrimage sites, historical and cultural places, pay respects at the graves of their relatives, and perform religious rites in churches․
UNESCO's role in carrying out its mission is crucial for halting further destruction, documenting the heritage at risk, and preventing its future annihilation. To achieve this, a collective approach is required—one that transcends political interests and aligns closely with the humanitarian needs of the present moment. The preservation of cultural heritage should be seen not only as a cultural obligation but as a fundamental human right for all peoples.
According to international regulations, Armenians in Artsakh have the right to live in accordance with their cultural traditions and customs, to protect their cultural heritage, and to preserve and practice archaeological and historical sites, crafts, and rituals.
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